Birthday Problem: In a group of 23 people, there's a 50% chance that two people share the same birthday.

This counterintuitive probability applies to software engineering:
- Hash collisions happen more often than expected
- Database ID collisions occur sooner than you think
- Cache key conflicts emerge with fewer entries than anticipated
- Bug report duplicates appear with smaller user bases

The lesson: when dealing with random events, our intuition about probability is usually wrong.

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